study of cryosphere service function and value evaluation
1. Introduction
The cryosphere refers to the portion of the Earth's surface
that is in the form of ice, including mountain glaciers, ice
sheets, ice shelves, sea, lake or river ice, snow cover, permafrost,
and seasonal frozen ground. As an integral part of the
climate system, the cryosphere responds the quickest to and is
the most representative of global climate change. It also impacts
both bio- and anthropogenic systems on different spatial
and temporal scales. The cryosphere interacts strongly with
the atmosphere, land surface, biosphere, hydrosphere, and
anthroposphere (human system).
It plays an important regulatory
function to the climate and Earth systems by
sophisticated positive and negative feedback processes of
water, energy, and material exchange on the different spatial
and temporal scales (Qin and Ding, 2010; Marshall, 2011).
Because the cryosphere stores a significant amount of water,
energy, and gas as well as carries endemic biological species
and indigenous cultural structures, it is not only an irreplaceable
resource but also a candidate for sustainable development
of population, resources, environment, social and economic
systems at high altitudes and polar regions. Therefore, the
cryosphere has unique service function.
The cryosphere service function (CSF) plays an important
role in the preservation and vitality of the general ecosystem.
The CSF should also be considered as an important component
of ecosystem services. CSF values should be measurable and
calculable. Previously, cryosphere science research mainly
focused on the study of its natural properties including the
cryosphere process, mechanisms, and negative socioeconomic
impacts (e.g., sea-level rise and cryosphere disasters). However,
CSF's positive contributions to human wellbeing have not
received sufficient attention nor have they been formally
defined or systematically discussed. In this study.
2. Cryosphere service
CS is defined as the benefit that the cryosphere provides to
human society. Similar to the ecosystem function and its services,
the cryosphere function reflects its inherent qualities.
The CSF, on the other hand, reflects its socioeconomic impacts.
That is, the CSF requires a human element, which includes
livelihood and overall wellbeing, with the increasing
dependency on environment resources. CS recognition and
preservation by humans will gradually increase with the rise of
economic development and living standards. Certainly, not all
cryosphere functions are necessarily able to provide service.
As mentioned above, CS represents the benefit that people can
gain (e.g., recourses, products, and welfare) from the cryosphere.
Here, we classify the different services of CS as supply,
accommodation, social culture, and living environment
service; all these products and services benefit people's livelihood
and wellbeing
2. Cryosphere service ;
CS is defined as the benefit that the cryosphere provides to
human society. Similar to the ecosystem function and its services,
the cryosphere function reflects its inherent qualities.
The CSF, on the other hand, reflects its socioeconomic impacts.
That is, the CSF requires a human element, which includes
livelihood and overall wellbeing, with the increasing
dependency on environment resources. CS recognition and
preservation by humans will gradually increase with the rise of
economic development and living standards. Certainly, not all
cryosphere functions are necessarily able to provide service.
As mentioned above, CS represents the benefit that people can
gain (e.g., recourses, products, and welfare) from the cryosphere.
Here, we classify the different services of CS as supply,
accommodation, social culture, and living environment
service; all these products and services benefit people's livelihood
and wellbeing (Fig. 1).
2.1. Supply service
2.1.1. Freshwater resources
The solid cryosphere is a major source and supplier of
freshwater to humans. Statistically, Antarctica stores 72% of
the world's available fresh water, which amounts to 27 million
km3 of ice and snow; although, at present, it is difficult to
access and utilize water from the polar ice sheets. However,
the cryosphere provides precious water to sustain global ecosystems,
industry, and agriculture over some arid lands.
Meltwater is crucial for residents living in high mountains and
polar regions (Hock, 2005). For instance, glacier coverage
significantly influences river runoff in central Asia. Meltwater
from mountain glaciers accounts for 25%e29% of total runoff
in the inland arid areas of Northwest China; the proportion is
Fig. 1. Cryosphere service function for human wellbeing.
182 XIAO C.-D. et al. / Advances in Climate Change Research 6 (2015) 181e187
up to 40% over the Tarim River Basin (Yang, 1991; Gao et al.,
2010). On the other hand, snow is an important source of water
in the mountain regions all over the world. Mountain snow
cover has provided freshwater for nearly 1/6 of the world's
population. Most arid regions in the western United States and
central Asia are highly dependent (about 75%e85%) on
snowmelt resources for public usage and agricultural activities
(Payne et al., 2004; Barnett et al., 2005; Barlow et al., 2005).
In western China, the melting snow in the spring accounts for
over 38% of average water resources.
Since the cryosphere is mature at remote high latitudes and
altitudes, away from anthropogenic impacted areas, relatively
clean air guarantees high-quality drinking water. Recently,
commercially available sources of high-quality glacier water
have become widespread around the globe and include many
mineral water brands such as Evian mineral water in France,
Heidiland mineral water in Switzerland, Alaska glacier water
in America, Eska glacier water in Canada, the 5100 Tibet
Glacier and the Kunlun Mountains mineral water in China.
3 Clean energy;
Clean energy from the cryosphere mainly consists of
glacial hydropower and natural gas hydrates. Meltwater runoff
has served as a reservoir over steep terrains for hydropower
production. For instance, many glacial valleys, fjords, and
mountain areas in the Alps, Norway, western United States,
and Canada have built numerous hydropower stations. The
hydroelectric generation relies on abundant water resources
from snow and ice and has stimulated regional industrial and
agricultural development (Cherry et al., 2005). There are no
estimations available for the total hydropower potential of
global meltwater from western China. As a result of global
warming and water preservation, the need for dam construction
in mountainous regions is becoming dire.
Gas hydrate, which is widely distributed in the permafrost,
submarine sediments of the continental shelves, and deep lake
sediments, is a potential clean energy source. Natural hydrate
is highly concentrated and volatile, has high storage capacity,
and is freely emitted. In principle, 1 m3 of gas hydrate can be
converted to 164 m3 of natural gas and 0.8 m3 of water; hence,
exhibits high energy efficiency. Currently, the total estimate of
gas hydrate is 1013e1016 m3 in global permafrost and
1015e1018 m3 in marine environment (part of them is the
submarine permafrost) (Sloan and Koh, 2003; Wu and Cheng,
2008), this value is equivalent to more than twice the world's
total known gas reserves. Following the United States,
Canada, and Russia, China is the fourth country to discover
natural gas hydrate physical samples in permafrost regions.
Gas hydrate contributes positively to the optimization of the
energy consumption structure.
4 Climate regulation
The cryosphere plays a role in mediating global and
regional climate owing to its high albedo and cold water,
which drives ocean circulation, leading to a comfortable living
condition and stable planetary ecosystem. The polar cryosphere
acts as an air conditioner for the Earth. The cryosphere
plays a pivotal role in the adjustment of the global climate
system (Barry and Gan, 2011). Climate models suggest that
the global climate regime would shift greatly if there were no
polar ice sheets and sea ice, having a detrimental impact on the
ecological system and food chain and eventually threatening
humans. On the other hand, the Northern Hemisphere cryosphere,
especially in permafrost zones, regulates the global
climate system by acting as a carbon sink or source, which
alters atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions. The organic
carbon storage of the cryosphere surface (0e3 m) and deep
layer (approximately 25e50 m in some areas) in the Northern
Hemisphere is 1400e1850 Pg C. In total, the northern
circumpolar permafrost region contains 1672 Pg C, which
amounts to approximately 50% of the reported global underground
organic carbon pool (Tarnocai et al., 2009). Because
the cold and wet climate environment would limit the
decomposition of permafrost soil organic matter, most soil
organic carbon would accumulate (Mc Guire et al., 2009,
2010). Many studies have suggested mountain glaciers and
polar ice caps as large organic carbon reservoirs. Glaciers
store about 6 Pg C, which are mostly stored in the Antarctic
ice sheets (Hood et al., 2015).
Water conservation and ecological regulation;
The water conservation function of the cryosphere is
remarkable. Among all components, frozen ground is the
most essential and is closely related to terrestrial ecology.
Owing to water impermeability in frozen ground and moisture
transfer onset by a temperature gradient, there is some
ground water near the permafrost upper limit. It is estimated
that ground ice stores more water than mountain glaciers
globally. Mountain glaciers account for only 0.12% of global
freshwater resources, whereas frozen ground ice accounts for
0.86%. This significant water conservation is an important
XIAO C.-D. et al. / Advances in Climate Change Research 6 (2015) 181e187 183
water resources for future sustainability. Preliminary estimates
indicate that the total ground ice reserves in the
permafrost regions of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau are
approximately 9528 km3
, which is roughly equal to 1.7 times
the total amount of glacier ice in China (Zhao et al., 2010).
Frozen ground is important for maintaining ecosystem stability
in cold regions. According to the temperature and
precipitation combinations in typical climate zones, without
the water conservation and thermal effect in frozen ground,
only a desert ecosystem can develop in the Qinghai-Tibetan
Plateau instead of large areas of alpine meadow and wetland
ecosystems. Owing to the huge water and heat effect of the
permafrost in pan-Arctic regions, typical polygonal tundra
and taiga ecosystems develop.
3. Social and cultural service .
Aesthetic and recreational service;
The cryosphere's aesthetic value, which promotes cryospheric
tourism, is one of the major factors of cryosphere
tourism attractions. The aesthetic value mainly refers to the
cryosphere landscape's artistic characteristics (e.g., shape and
color), status, and significance (e.g., diversity, oddity, pleasure,
and integrity). With its distinct monopoly on aesthetic
value, the cryosphere landscape cannot be copied. The
cryosphere contains many different elements including glaciers,
glacier relics, ice sheets, ice shelves, sea ice, snow
cover, frost, frost heave, snow cover, freezing rain, freezing
fog, ice sculptures, and other related aesthetic and cultural
characteristics, which are important tourist attractions and
play significant roles in recreational service. Owing to the
rise in economic and living standards and more leisure time,
cryosphere tourism has become a new and integral part of
many countries' development strategy around the world.
Cryosphere tourism plays an important role in advancing
regional economic benefits, enhancing the meaning and
popularity of regional tourism, and promoting regional economic
and social sustainability
Scientific research and environmental education;
The objectives and purpose of cryosphere scientific
research and environmental education are primarily reflected
in the improvements to the national economy and people's
welfare. Examples of environmental education include activities
such as cryosphere scientific research (theoretical
research), popular cryosphere knowledge, application of
cryosphere technology, cryospheric environment education,
and training cryospheric researchers. The cryosphere is an
important resource for studying past climatic and environmental
changes, and thus an important media for climate
change research. Some cryosphere parameters (e.g., snow
cover area, snow depth and water equivalent, sea ice extent
and concentration, permafrost temperature and active layer
thickness, moisture, and heat flux) are also essential variables
for operational studies such as weather forecast and climate
prediction. Moreover, the dates of river ice freezing and
thawing, frozen section, the thickness of river ice, and so on
are crucial input parameters for ice flood warning/forecasting
in hydrological services. The prevention of cryosphere
disaster, spring flood forecasting, maintenance of coastal
harbors in cold regions, maintenance and safe operation of
road network and infrastructure in permafrost zones, route
planning of icebreakers in polar regions, and so on require
cryospheric observation and prediction products in order to
provide basic services. The cryosphere is extremely sensitive
to climate change; thus, it is usually a good natural indicator
for detecting climate change and has a high value for science
and environmental education. Through popular science education
and tourism to regions associated with the cryosphere,
the general public not only understands the formation and
evolution of the cryosphere but also respects environmental
protection.
Religious and cultural service;
On account of its ancient history and culture, many snowcovered
and glacierized mountain peaks are considered as
spiritual and accorded cultural importance; they are considered
to be the physical manifestation of different gods and
spirit, and their presence contributes to a unique cultural
structure, understanding, and worship of mountainous residents.
For example, Mt. Qomolangma (Mount Everest) means
goddess in the Tibetan language, and in Nepal, it is called
Sagarm ath a, meaning the god of the sky. In India, thousands of
pilgrims traverse the Gangotri Glacier as a sacred spot
(Epstein and Peng, 1998; Litzinger, 2004; Wang and Qin,
2015). In Peru, the natives believe that spirits live in the
mountains. Some indigenous Peruvians associate the loss of
ice and snow from mountain peaks with the god's departure
and the end of the world (Steinberg, 2008). Similarly, in
Canada's Yukon Territory, the indigenous people consider
glaciers as gods that could perceive human activities. Moreover,
the cryosphere is home to some of the most unique
cultures in the world. For example, Eskimos live year round in
the Arctic and central Arctic cryosphere and their ways of
living closely relate to the cryosphere, which forms a unique
sociocultural structure. These generations live in the cryosphere
area and their humanistic characteristics are inextricably
closely related to the presence of the cryosphere. The
unique cultural structure of these minorities undoubtedly depends
on the availability of cryospheric resources and unique
landscapes. In the context of global warming and the impacts
of globalization and modernization, the question of how to
keep or protect humanity and the indigenous cultural structure
in cryosphere regions has become an important project for the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) and humane studies. On the other hand, the
cryosphere, with its own unique charm, provides inspiration
and materials for artistic creations in literature, film, photography,
logos or signs (e.g., totems and trademarks), sculpture,
architecture, and such for humans (Wang and Jiao, 2012;
Vergara et al., 2007). For example, the novel The Snows of
Kilimanjaro by Ernest Hemingway, the movie series Ice Age
1e4, and other literary works are derived from elements of the
cryosphere.
Habitat service;
The cryosphere provides food, water, and the shelter
needed for the survival of different species. It not only provides
a large area for different habitat services for permanent
residents and migratory populations in cold zones over the
world but also provides rich living spaces with heterogeneity
and a variety of habitats or refuges for feeding, breeding of
terrestrial and marine biota, and residents living in the vicinity
of the cryosphere. Furthermore, the cryosphere is a safe haven
for unique or rare and endangered wildlife. In polar and subpolar
regions, in addition to indigenous people, the cryosphere
maintains crucial habitats for microbes, algae, worms,
crustaceans, sea birds, penguins, seals, walruses, polar bears,
and whales (UNEP, 2007). For example, ice algae that grow
onto sea ice and under ice are important food sources for organisms
in the Arctic and Southern oceans. Under-ice crustaceans
are the key species for material and energy flows from
sea ice to the water body. The composition, distribution, and
abundance of under-ice crustacean species are closely related
to the age, type of sea ice, and under-ice form. Sea ice provides
an extreme and variable habitat and shelter for different
types of ice-related biota. The supported sea ice biomes play a
vital role in the polar ecosystem (ACIA, 2004; UNEP, 2007;
Poulin et al., 2011). As another example, snow cover in the
Arctic and sub-Arctic provides a medium that supports
migration routes, breeding, and refereeing shelter for small
animals (e.g., birds, small mammals, rabbits, and foxes) via a
smooth undulating terrain. In addition, the interaction between
the cryosphere and ocean create another livable habitat.
Cryospheric water promotes the circulation of cold and warm
ocean currents in high latitudes as they flow into the ocean.
When the cold and warm ocean currents intersect, seawater
disturbance occurs, i.e., the near-surface seawater sinks,
whereas deep water ascends. The seawater that flows to the
surface carries nutrients to the ocean surface. These nutrients
accelerate the growth of plankton, which thereby flourish and
provide a rich food source for fish. At the same time, the
junction belts of the cold and warm ocean currents create a
water barrier to prevent fish from swimming away, which is
beneficial to form large-scale fishing grounds including the
world's three major fishing grounds in Hokkaido of Japan, the
North Sea of Europe and Newfoundland of Canada.
Evaluation system for the cryosphere service value;
The diverse CSFs determine their various service values as
per the taxonomy of the ES value in terms of the way, degree
and duration that human obtained benefit, the CSFs value can
be categorized into use value (UV) and nonuse value (NUV).
Use value includes direct use value (DUV) and indirect use
value (IUV), and nonuse value comprises optional value (OV),
existence value (EV), and heritage value (HV). Direct use
value refers to the value provided directly to the cryosphere
from human activities including the output (e.g., freshwater
resources and clean energy values) and nonoutput values with
noncompetitive and nonexclusive services (e.g., aesthetics and
recreation, scientific research, environmental education, religious,
and cultural values). Conversely, indirect use value refers
to the benefits indirectly obtained from the cryosphere.
Indirect use values are not influenced by human activities such
as climate regulation, runoff regulation, water conservation,
and ecological regulation services of the cryosphere. Optional
value refers to the potential value of the cryosphere resources.
It features some resources and services that are likely to be
used. Heritage value is a manifestation of some use value and
nonuse value of the CSs reserved for the descendants, namely,
values that pay for the descendants using CSs in the future.
Existence value, also known as an intrinsic value, ensures that
CSs can persistently exist. EV is the inherent value of the
cryosphere and is not concerned with the use of CSFs now or
in the future. The assessment results are shown in Table 1,
detailing the cryosphere function and its service value. For
supply service value (e.g., freshwater and clean energy) can be
determined directly using market price method (MPM), while
other non-material service value (e.g., regulating service, social
and cultural service, habitat service) can only be calculated
by replaced or stimulated market methods. The available
replaced or stimulated methods include opportunity cost
method (OCM), shadow engineering method (SEM), hedonic
pricing method (HPM), travel cost method (TCM) and
contingent valuation method (CVM). Overall, the evaluation
system is composed of four primary and nine secondary
indicators.
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